Draft:Chad

Chad

Country

Official name

Republic of Chad

Native name

République du Tchad
جمهورية تشاد

Capital

N'Djamena

Largest city

N'Djamena

Official languages

French and Arabic

Demonym

Chadian

Government

Unitary presidential republic

Legislature

Parliament of Chad

Currency

Central African CFA franc(XAF)

Calling code

+235

Chad, officially the Republic of Chad, is a landlocked country in Central Africa. It borders Libya to the north, Sudan to the east, the Central African Republic to the south, Cameroon and Nigeria to the southwest, and Niger to the west. Its capital and largest city is N'Djamena. Chad covers about 1,284,000 square kilometres, making it one of Africa's largest countries by area.

The country's landscape changes markedly from north to south. The northern part lies within the Sahara Desert and includes the Tibesti Mountains, while central Chad forms part of the semi-arid Sahel. The south receives substantially more rainfall and includes savanna, agricultural areas and the valleys of the Chari and Logone rivers. Lake Chad, from which the country takes its name, lies along the western frontier.

Chad had an estimated population of about 21.0 million in 2025. French and Arabic are the official languages, while numerous other languages are spoken by the country's ethnically and linguistically diverse population. Islam and Christianity are the two largest religious traditions.

Chad became independent from France on 11 August 1960. Its post-independence history has included civil wars, rebellions, military interventions and long periods of centralized presidential rule. Following the death of President Idriss Déby in 2021, a military transition was established under his son, Mahamat Idriss Déby Itno. Déby was declared the winner of the May 2024 presidential election by the Constitutional Council and was inaugurated later that month.

Chad's economy combines agriculture, livestock raising, trade and petroleum production. Oil is particularly important to exports and public revenue, while agriculture remains a major source of employment and livelihoods. Economic development is affected by poverty, infrastructure gaps, climate shocks, insecurity in the wider region and the country's landlocked position.

Geography

Chad occupies a broad part of north-central Africa and has no coastline. Its territory covers approximately 1.284 million square kilometres. The country shares borders with six states: Libya, Sudan, the Central African Republic, Cameroon, Nigeria and Niger.

Much of Chad forms part of the Chad Basin, a large interior drainage basin. Elevation generally rises toward mountainous areas in the north and plateaus in the east. The Tibesti Mountains dominate part of northern Chad and contain Emi Koussi, a volcanic mountain rising to about 3,415 metres and the country's highest point. The Ennedi Massif and the Ouaddaï highlands are major features of eastern Chad.

The main permanent river system is found in the south and southwest. The Chari and Logone rivers flow toward Lake Chad and provide much of its inflow. Their valleys and floodplains are important areas for agriculture, settlement and livestock.

Climate and ecological zones

Chad's climate becomes progressively wetter from north to south. National climate planning documents divide the country broadly into Saharan, Sahelian and Sudanian zones. The Saharan zone covers most of the north and receives very little rain. The central Sahel has a longer dry season with a shorter period of seasonal rainfall, while the southern part of Chad has a tropical savanna climate and receives substantially greater annual precipitation.

The differences in rainfall strongly influence settlement, farming and vegetation. Desert landscapes dominate much of northern Chad, while steppe and drought-resistant vegetation are characteristic of the Sahel. Grasslands, wooded savanna and agricultural land become more common farther south.

Climate variability creates significant environmental pressures. Drought, desertification and flooding affect water availability, agriculture and rural livelihoods. Severe floods in 2024 affected large parts of Chad, including areas of N'Djamena, after unusually heavy seasonal rainfall across parts of West and Central Africa.

Lake Chad

Lake Chad lies on Chad's western side near the borders with Cameroon, Niger and Nigeria. Its area has varied greatly over time as a result of changes in rainfall, river inflow, evaporation and water use. The Chari-Logone river system is the principal source of surface water entering the lake.

Lake Chad is economically important to communities involved in fishing, agriculture, livestock and trade. Environmental changes around the lake also have regional consequences because its basin extends across several countries.

Natural heritage

Chad has two properties on the UNESCO World Heritage List: the Lakes of Ounianga and the Ennedi Massif. The Lakes of Ounianga, inscribed in 2012, comprise 18 lakes in an extremely dry part of northeastern Chad. UNESCO describes them as an unusual permanent lake system within a hyper-arid desert environment.

The Ennedi Massif was added to the World Heritage List in 2016 as a mixed natural and cultural landscape. The region contains sandstone formations, canyons, rock shelters and extensive examples of ancient rock art.

History

Early states and regional kingdoms

Human communities have lived around the Lake Chad basin and surrounding regions for thousands of years. Over time, trade routes linking the Sahara, the Nile region and areas farther south encouraged the rise of organized states. Among the most historically important were Kanem-Bornu, Bagirmi and Wadai.

Kanem emerged northeast of Lake Chad and developed into one of the major political powers of the central Sudan. Its rulers became involved in trans-Saharan commerce and adopted Islam. Political and military pressures eventually shifted the centre of the state westward into Bornu. Bagirmi developed southeast of Kanem-Bornu, while Wadai became an influential state in the east. These kingdoms competed, traded and at various times exercised authority over surrounding communities.

French colonial rule

French military expansion into the region intensified around the end of the nineteenth century. France gradually established control over the territory, although armed resistance continued in several areas. Chad became associated with French Equatorial Africa, the colonial federation that also included territories corresponding to present-day Gabon, the Republic of the Congo and the Central African Republic.

Political changes after the Second World War increased African representation and local political activity within the French colonial system. Chad later became an autonomous member of the French Community before achieving full independence on 11 August 1960.

Independence and civil conflict

François Tombalbaye became the first president of independent Chad. His government faced growing political and regional opposition, and an uprising beginning in 1965 developed into a prolonged civil conflict. Tombalbaye was overthrown and killed in a military coup in 1975, after which political instability and factional fighting continued.

By the late 1970s, competing armed factions had weakened central authority. Libya also became directly involved in Chadian affairs, particularly in the north. Hissène Habré eventually took power in 1982. His government remained in office until 1990, when forces led by Idriss Déby entered N'Djamena and overthrew him.

Habré was later prosecuted before the Extraordinary African Chambers in Senegal. In 2016, the court found him guilty of crimes against humanity, war crimes and torture and sentenced him to life imprisonment. The appeals chamber upheld the conviction and life sentence in 2017.

Idriss Déby era

Idriss Déby took power in December 1990 and remained president for more than three decades. His period in office included constitutional changes, elections, armed rebellions and repeated security crises. Chad also became an important military actor in regional operations in the Sahel and Lake Chad basin.

Déby died in April 2021 after being wounded while visiting troops fighting rebels in northern Chad, according to the Chadian military. A Transitional Military Council headed by his son, Mahamat Idriss Déby Itno, then assumed authority. The military initially announced an 18-month transition, although the transition was later extended.

Transition and constitutional government

A constitutional referendum was held on 17 December 2023. According to official results, the proposed constitution received about 86% support. The constitution retained Chad as a unitary state. Several opposition groups boycotted or criticized the process, while the transitional authorities presented it as part of the planned return to constitutional government.

The presidential election was held on 6 May 2024. On 16 May, the Constitutional Council declared Mahamat Idriss Déby Itno the winner with about 61% of the vote after rejecting challenges to the result. His principal opponent, then prime minister Succès Masra, disputed the outcome. Déby was inaugurated as president on 23 May 2024.

Legislative, provincial and municipal elections followed on 29 December 2024. The Patriotic Salvation Movement won 124 of the 188 seats in the National Assembly. Several opposition parties, including Masra's Les Transformateurs, boycotted the legislative election and raised concerns about the electoral process.

Chad's first Senate elections were held indirectly on 25 February 2025. The Senate has 69 members: 46 chosen indirectly by provincial and municipal councillors and 23 appointed by the president. Its establishment made the national parliament bicameral.

In October 2025, the National Assembly and Senate approved constitutional amendments that extended the presidential term from five to seven years and removed the previous limit on the number of presidential terms. The amendments were boycotted by some opposition parties and were promulgated on 8 October 2025.

Government and politics

Chad is a unitary presidential republic. The president is head of state, while the prime minister serves as head of government. Mahamat Idriss Déby Itno has served as elected president since May 2024, and Allamaye Halina has served as prime minister since May 2024; Halina was reconfirmed in the position in February 2025.

The national parliament is bicameral. The lower chamber, the National Assembly, has 188 members elected by citizens. The upper chamber, the Senate, has 69 members, of whom 46 are indirectly elected and 23 are appointed by the president.

The constitution provides for executive, legislative and judicial institutions and for decentralised territorial government. Chad is divided administratively into 23 provinces, including N'Djamena, which has provincial-level status.

Foreign relations

Chad joined the United Nations on 20 September 1960, shortly after independence. It was also among the African states that joined the Organisation of African Unity, the predecessor of the African Union, in 1963.

The country participates in regional organizations concerned with political cooperation, economic integration and security. It is also a member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, which records Chad as a member since 1969.

Chad's foreign and security policies have been influenced by conflicts in neighbouring countries and instability across the Sahel, the Lake Chad basin and Sudan. These conflicts have also produced large refugee movements into Chad and placed pressure on government services and host communities.

Economy

Chad has a landlocked, commodity-dependent economy in which petroleum, agriculture and livestock are major sectors. The World Bank estimates that oil accounts for around 15% of gross domestic product, about 41% of government revenue and roughly 76% of exports. This reliance makes public finances and economic growth sensitive to changes in oil production and international prices.

Agriculture remains central to livelihoods and the wider economy. Crop farming and animal husbandry employ a large share of the population, particularly in rural areas. Important activities include the production of cereals, sesame, gum arabic and livestock. Agricultural output is vulnerable to drought, floods, insecurity and infrastructure constraints.

The World Bank has identified economic diversification as a major long-term challenge, particularly because oil production is expected to decline over time. Improving agricultural productivity, livestock value chains, transport, services and the digital economy have been identified as possible areas for broader growth.

World Bank data estimated Chad's population at 21,003,705 and gross domestic product at about US$21.47 billion in 2025. GDP per capita was approximately US$1,022 in current dollars.

Demographics

The United Nations estimated Chad's population at approximately 21 million in 2025, with an average density of around 16.7 inhabitants per square kilometre. Population distribution is uneven, with much greater settlement in the south and around major water sources than in the Sahara-dominated north.

Chad is home to numerous ethnic communities and a high degree of linguistic diversity. A Chadian report submitted to the United Nations stated that the population is divided among 12 broad linguistic groups and that more than 200 languages or dialects are spoken. French and Arabic are the country's official languages.

N'Djamena is the largest urban centre and the national political and economic capital. Other important cities and towns include Moundou, Sarh, Abéché and Faya-Largeau.

Religion

Islam and Christianity are the largest religions in Chad, alongside smaller communities following traditional beliefs or no religion. Chad's 2009 population census, as reported in a United Nations core document, recorded 58.4% of the population as Muslim, 18.5% as Catholic, 16.1% as Protestant, 4% as following animist beliefs and smaller shares in other categories.

Religious distribution varies geographically. Muslim communities are especially prominent in northern and central regions, while Christianity has a stronger presence in parts of southern Chad.

Health and living conditions

Chad continues to face major development challenges in health, poverty, infrastructure, sanitation and access to basic services. World Bank data placed life expectancy at birth at about 55 years in 2024.

Access to modern infrastructure remains limited in many parts of the country. According to World Bank indicators, about 13.4% of the population had access to electricity in 2024, while approximately 13% used the internet. The availability of services is generally lower in rural and remote areas.

Humanitarian pressures have been intensified by conflict in neighbouring countries, especially Sudan. Chad has received large numbers of refugees and asylum seekers, adding to existing pressures from internal displacement, food insecurity and climate-related emergencies.

Culture

Chadian culture reflects the country's ethnic, linguistic, religious and geographical diversity. Cultural traditions vary considerably between nomadic and pastoral communities of the Sahara and Sahel, farming communities of the south, and populations in towns and cities.

Music, oral storytelling, dance, craft traditions and community celebrations form important parts of cultural life. French and Arabic are used in national administration and education, while many local languages continue to serve as the main languages of daily life within communities.

Archaeological sites and rock art preserve evidence of much earlier societies. The Ennedi Massif is especially known for rock paintings and engravings that document changing human activities, animals and environments over long periods. UNESCO recognizes the massif for both its natural formations and cultural heritage.

The National Museum of Chad in N'Djamena preserves collections connected with archaeology, history, art and the country's cultural heritage.

Environment and conservation

Chad's ecosystems range from hyper-arid desert to Sahelian grasslands, wetlands and southern savanna. This environmental diversity supports wildlife and pastoral systems but is under pressure from land degradation, changing rainfall patterns, drought and human activity.

The Lakes of Ounianga are notable because permanent freshwater and saline lakes survive in an area receiving extremely little annual rainfall. UNESCO states that the property contains 18 interconnected lakes divided into two main groups and represents an exceptional hydrological system within the Sahara.

Conservation also takes place in national parks and other protected areas. Environmental policy is closely connected to water management, agriculture, pastoral livelihoods and adaptation to climate change.

International membership

Chad is a member of the United Nations, African Union and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, as well as a participant in regional Central African institutions. Its international engagement often focuses on regional security, economic integration, development, humanitarian issues and the effects of climate change.

See also

• N'Djamena
• Lake Chad
• History of Chad
• Geography of Chad
• Politics of Chad
• Economy of Chad
• Culture of Chad
• Central Africa
• Sahel

External links

• Presidency of the Republic of Chad
• World Bank – Chad
• United Nations Data – Chad
• UNESCO World Heritage – Chad