China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It extends across approximately 9.6 million square kilometres and has a mainland coastline of about 18,000 kilometres.[1] Its capital is Beijing. China has one of the world's largest populations; the National Bureau of Statistics reported 1.40489 billion people at the end of 2025 for the 31 mainland provincial-level regions and active-duty military personnel, excluding residents of Hong Kong, Macao, Taiwan and foreign residents.[2]
China's recorded history extends back several millennia. Early states developed around the Yellow River and other regions, and successive dynasties established political institutions, writing traditions, extensive trade networks and major cultural traditions. The Qin dynasty unified competing states in 221 BCE, while later dynasties including the Han, Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing governed large parts of what is now China at different periods.[3][4]
The Qing dynasty ended in 1912 and was succeeded by the Republic of China. Following decades of political conflict, Japanese invasion and civil war, the Communist Party of China established the People's Republic of China in 1949.[5] Since economic reforms began in 1978, China has undergone large-scale industrialisation, urbanisation and integration with the global economy. The World Bank states that average GDP growth exceeded 9 percent annually for much of the reform era and that almost 800 million people were lifted from extreme poverty.[6]
China is a major participant in international affairs. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council[7] and has been a member of the World Trade Organization since 11 December 2001.[8]
Name
The English name "China" has a long history in European languages, while the modern state's official Chinese name is Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó (中华人民共和国), translated as "People's Republic of China". The shorter Chinese name Zhōngguó (中国) is commonly used for China.
Standard Chinese, known in mainland China as Putonghua, is based primarily on the Beijing variety of Mandarin and serves as the national standard spoken language. Chinese also includes numerous regional varieties such as Cantonese, Wu, Min, Hakka, Xiang and Gan.[9]
History
Early states and imperial China
Archaeological evidence documents complex societies in China long before the establishment of a unified empire. The Shang dynasty, conventionally dated to roughly 1600–1046 BCE, is the earliest Chinese dynasty supported by substantial archaeological and written evidence. It was followed by the Zhou dynasty, during which political authority became increasingly divided among regional states.[3]
The later Zhou period included the Spring and Autumn and Warring States eras. Intellectual traditions associated with figures such as Confucius developed during this broad period. In 221 BCE, the state of Qin defeated its rivals and created the first unified imperial state under Qin Shi Huang. The Qin standardised important elements of administration and was followed by the much longer Han dynasty.[4]
Political unity alternated with periods of division over the following centuries. The Sui dynasty reunited much of China in the sixth century, followed by the Tang dynasty, an era associated with extensive trade and cultural exchange. The Song period saw major economic, technological and cultural development, while northern China was at times controlled by other states.[5]
Mongol forces eventually conquered the Song and established the Yuan dynasty. The Yuan was followed in 1368 by the Ming dynasty, which ruled until 1644. The Manchu-led Qing dynasty then governed China until the early twentieth century.[10][5]
Republic and war
During the nineteenth century, the Qing state faced internal rebellions, economic pressures and military conflicts with foreign powers. Political reform movements and revolutionary organisations expanded in the late Qing period. The 1911 Revolution led to the end of imperial government, and the Republic of China was established in 1912.[5]
The following decades included competition among regional military leaders, political conflict between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China, and invasion by Japan. The conflict with Japan became part of the wider Second World War. After Japan's defeat in 1945, the Chinese Civil War resumed between Communist and Nationalist forces.[5]
People's Republic of China
On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China in Beijing after Communist forces gained control of most of mainland China. The Nationalist government relocated to Taiwan, where the Republic of China continued to operate.[5]
The early decades of the People's Republic included land reform, collectivisation and a state-directed economic system. Political campaigns included the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, both of which produced major economic and social disruption.[5]
After Mao's death in 1976, the Chinese leadership gradually shifted economic policy. Reform and opening policies beginning in 1978 expanded household farming, encouraged market activity, established special economic zones and increased international trade and investment.[11]
The reform era produced rapid economic growth and structural transformation. According to the World Bank, China moved from a low-income economy to an upper-middle-income economy while hundreds of millions of people moved above the international extreme-poverty threshold.[6][12]
Geography
China occupies a large part of East Asia and stretches from high plateaus and mountain systems in the west to broad plains and coastal regions in the east. Its land area is approximately 9.6 million square kilometres.[1]
Western China includes the Tibetan Plateau, some of the world's highest mountains, large basins and arid regions. The Himalayas form part of China's southwestern frontier, and Mount Everest lies on the China–Nepal border. Northern and northwestern areas include sections of the Gobi Desert and Taklamakan Desert. Eastern China contains extensive plains, river valleys and some of the country's most densely populated urban regions.[13]
Two of China's most important river systems are the Yangtze River and the Yellow River. Both originate in highland areas in the west and flow generally eastward toward the Pacific coast. River valleys have played major roles in agriculture, settlement, transport and the development of Chinese civilisation.
China's climate varies greatly because of its size, elevation and latitude. Southern areas include subtropical and tropical climates, while northern and inland regions experience colder and drier conditions. High-altitude regions have alpine climates. Seasonal monsoon systems strongly influence rainfall in eastern and southern China.
Environment and biodiversity
China contains ecosystems ranging from deserts and high-altitude grasslands to temperate forests, wetlands and subtropical environments. Its large geographical range supports significant biological diversity.
Several important natural areas have been recognised under the UNESCO World Heritage Convention, including the Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries, Jiuzhaigou Valley, South China Karst, Xinjiang Tianshan and the Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas.[14]
China also faces environmental challenges associated with industrialisation, urban development, water demand, pollution, habitat pressure and climate change. Environmental policy has increasingly included renewable energy, conservation, pollution control and ecological restoration programs.
Government and politics
China's constitution defines the People's Republic of China as a socialist state and states that leadership by the Communist Party of China is a defining feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics.[15]
The National People's Congress (NPC) is constitutionally the highest organ of state power, with its Standing Committee serving as its permanent body. State institutions also include the President, the State Council, Central Military Commission, people's courts, people's procuratorates and local governments.[16]
The president is elected by the National People's Congress. As of September 2026, Xi Jinping is president of China, general secretary of the Communist Party of China and chairman of the Central Military Commission.[17] Li Qiang serves as premier and heads the State Council, the country's highest state administrative organ.[18]
The constitution provides for people's congresses at several levels and describes the organisation of local governments, autonomous areas and special administrative regions.[19]
Administrative divisions
The Chinese government describes the country as having 34 provincial-level divisions: 23 provinces, five autonomous regions, four municipalities directly under the central government and two special administrative regions.[20]
The five autonomous regions are Guangxi, Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Tibet and Xinjiang. The four municipalities are Beijing, Chongqing, Shanghai and Tianjin. Hong Kong and Macao are special administrative regions established under separate constitutional arrangements.[20][19]
The People's Republic of China lists Taiwan as a province in its official administrative framework, but Taiwan is governed separately by the Republic of China. The political status and international representation of Taiwan remain matters of cross-strait and international dispute.
Foreign relations
China maintains diplomatic relations with countries across the world and participates in major international and regional organisations. The People's Republic of China has represented China at the United Nations since 1971, when UN General Assembly Resolution 2758 recognised representatives of the PRC government as China's representatives to the organisation.[21]
China is one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.[7] It is also a member of organisations including the World Trade Organization, G20, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and BRICS.
China's foreign relations include extensive trade and investment links, bilateral diplomacy and participation in multilateral institutions. The country has also developed the Belt and Road Initiative, through which Chinese institutions have financed or participated in infrastructure and economic projects in numerous countries.
Economy
China has developed one of the world's largest economies following several decades of industrialisation and market-oriented reforms. Economic policy combines market activity, private enterprise and foreign investment with a large state-owned sector and significant government planning and regulation.
Reforms introduced from 1978 changed agricultural production, expanded non-state economic activity, increased the role of markets and opened parts of the economy to foreign trade and investment. Special economic zones and rapidly growing coastal cities became important centres of export manufacturing.[11]
The World Bank reports that China's GDP growth averaged more than 9 percent annually from the beginning of the reform period for several decades and that nearly 800 million people rose above the international extreme-poverty line.[6]
China joined the World Trade Organization on 11 December 2001, further increasing its integration into international trade.[8] Major sectors of the economy include manufacturing, construction, services, information technology, finance, transport, energy and agriculture.
China is a major producer of manufactured goods and is deeply integrated into global supply chains. Its industries produce electronics, machinery, vehicles, steel, chemicals, textiles and many other products.
The economy grew by 5 percent in real terms in 2025, according to the International Monetary Fund. The IMF also identified challenges including weak domestic demand, the property-sector adjustment, demographic ageing, high debt levels and slower productivity growth.[22]
Population and society
The National Bureau of Statistics reported a population of 1.40489 billion at the end of 2025 for mainland China's 31 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities plus active-duty military personnel. This total excluded Hong Kong, Macao, Taiwan and foreign residents. The population declined by 3.39 million during 2025.[2]
China is undergoing substantial demographic change. At the end of 2025, people aged 60 or above numbered 323.38 million, representing 23 percent of the population covered by the national statistics. The working-age population aged 16 to 59 was 851.36 million.[2]
The population is concentrated heavily in eastern and central regions, particularly in major river basins, coastal provinces and large urban areas. Decades of internal migration and urbanisation have transformed settlement patterns and expanded cities including Shanghai, Beijing, Shenzhen, Guangzhou and Chongqing.
Ethnic groups
The Han Chinese form the large majority of China's population. The government officially recognises 55 additional ethnic minority groups, including the Zhuang, Hui, Uyghur, Miao, Manchu, Yi, Tujia, Tibetan and Mongol peoples.
China's constitution provides for regional autonomy in areas where minority nationalities live in concentrated communities and states that different nationalities may use and develop their own spoken and written languages.[15]
Languages
Standard Chinese, or Putonghua, is the national standard language. China also has numerous varieties of Chinese, including Mandarin varieties, Wu, Cantonese or Yue, Min, Hakka, Gan and Xiang.[9]
Non-Sinitic languages are also spoken by minority communities. These include Tibetan, Mongolian, Uyghur, Kazakh, Korean, Zhuang and many other languages belonging to several language families.
Religion and belief
China has long been home to traditions including Buddhism, Taoism, Chinese folk religion, Confucian traditions, Islam and Christianity. Religious practice and institutions operate within a legal and regulatory framework established by the state.
Education, science and technology
China has expanded its education system substantially during the modern period, including primary and secondary schooling, universities, vocational education and research institutions. Major universities include Tsinghua University, Peking University, Fudan University, Shanghai Jiao Tong University and Zhejiang University.
The country has become a major centre for scientific research, engineering and technology industries. Research and industrial development cover fields such as telecommunications, artificial intelligence, renewable energy, electric vehicles, high-speed rail, aerospace, biotechnology and advanced manufacturing.
China's space programme has developed launch vehicles, communications and Earth-observation satellites, human spaceflight capabilities and lunar and planetary missions.
Transport and infrastructure
China has developed extensive transport infrastructure linking major cities and industrial regions. The transport system includes expressways, conventional railways, high-speed rail, airports, ports, inland waterways and large urban metro networks.
High-speed railway construction has connected many major cities, while large ports along the eastern and southern coasts support international trade. Urban transport systems have expanded rapidly in cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and Shenzhen.
Major infrastructure projects also include dams, bridges, tunnels, airports and energy networks.
Culture
Chinese culture developed over a long historical period and varies greatly between regions and communities. Important cultural traditions include Chinese literature, calligraphy, painting, architecture, ceramics, philosophy, music, theatre and regional cuisines.
Confucian thought has had a major historical influence on education, ethics, government and social relationships. Taoist and Buddhist traditions have also shaped Chinese philosophy, art and religious practice.
Chinese literary history ranges from classical poetry and historical writings to vernacular fiction and modern literature. Important historical works include the Book of Songs, historical chronicles and the major classical novels of later imperial China.
Traditional visual arts include ink painting, calligraphy, sculpture, porcelain and decorative arts. Chinese ceramics became important international trade goods, particularly during the imperial period.
Cuisine
Chinese cuisine includes many distinct regional traditions. Well-known culinary regions include Sichuan, Cantonese, Shandong, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Hunan and Anhui traditions. Rice is particularly important in many southern regions, while wheat-based foods such as noodles, dumplings and steamed breads are common in northern China.
Tea has played an important role in Chinese agriculture, trade and social culture for centuries.
Festivals
Major traditional festivals include Chinese New Year, also known as the Spring Festival, the Lantern Festival, Qingming Festival, Dragon Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival. Their practices vary across regions and communities.
Heritage and tourism
China contains numerous archaeological sites, historic cities, monuments, religious complexes and natural landscapes. UNESCO listed 61 properties in China on the World Heritage List as of 2026, consisting of cultural, natural and mixed sites.[14]
Prominent heritage sites include the Great Wall of China, the Forbidden City, the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor, the Mogao Caves, the Temple of Heaven, the Grand Canal and the historic centre of Macao.[14]
The Great Wall, built and rebuilt in different periods by multiple states and dynasties, is one of China's most widely recognised historical structures.
Human rights
China's constitution states that the state respects and protects human rights and provides a range of rights and duties for citizens.[15]
China's human-rights record has also been the subject of international scrutiny. In a 2022 assessment concerning Xinjiang, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights reported serious concerns over detention practices and alleged violations affecting Uyghurs and other predominantly Muslim communities. The Chinese government has rejected many international allegations concerning Xinjiang and has described its policies there as measures directed at terrorism, extremism, development and social stability.[23]
China participated in the United Nations Human Rights Council's Universal Periodic Review process in January 2024, during which other UN member states submitted recommendations covering a range of civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights issues.[24]
International role
China's economic size, manufacturing capacity, military capabilities and permanent seat on the UN Security Council give it a significant role in international affairs. Its diplomatic and economic relationships extend across Asia, Africa, Europe, the Americas and Oceania.
China participates in international discussions concerning trade, climate change, development financing, global health, security and technological standards. Its overseas investment and infrastructure activities have increased its economic links with many developing and developed economies.
See also
- Asia
- East Asia
- Beijing
- Chinese language
- History of China
- Great Wall of China
- Economy of China
- Culture of China
- People's Republic of China
- United Nations
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Foreign Investment Guide of the People's Republic of China (2025 Edition): Country Overview. Ministry of Commerce of the People's Republic of China. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 National Economy Pushed Forward with Innovation-led and High-quality Development and Expected Targets Achieved Successfully in 2025. National Bureau of Statistics of China. 19 January 2026. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Shang and Zhou Dynasties: The Bronze Age of China. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 China, 1000 B.C.–1 A.D.. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 China: History and Geography. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 China. World Bank Group. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Current Members. United Nations Security Council. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 China: WTO Tariff & Trade Data. World Trade Organization. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Chinese languages. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ China, 1000–1400 A.D.. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 China 2030: Building a Modern, Harmonious, and Creative High-Income Society. World Bank and Development Research Center of the State Council. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ Lifting 800 Million People Out of Poverty – New Report Looks at Lessons from China's Experience. World Bank. 1 April 2022. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ The Physical World. CIA World Factbook. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 China. UNESCO World Heritage Convention. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 The Constitution of the People's Republic of China (2018). National People's Congress. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ State Structure of the People's Republic of China. National People's Congress. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ President Xi Jinping Departs Beijing for New Delhi to Attend the 18th BRICS Summit. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China. 12 September 2026. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ The State Council of the People's Republic of China. Government of China. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Constitution of the People's Republic of China. State Council of the People's Republic of China. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 Administrative Division. State Council Information Office of the People's Republic of China. 17 April 2017. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ 1971 United Nations Yearbook. United Nations Digital Library. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ IMF Executive Board Concludes 2025 Article IV Consultation with China. International Monetary Fund. 18 February 2026. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ OHCHR Assessment of Human Rights Concerns in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, People's Republic of China. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. 31 August 2022. Accessed 26 September 2026.
- ↑ Report of the Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review: China. United Nations Human Rights Council. 2024. Accessed 26 September 2026.