Afghanistan is a landlocked country at the meeting point of Central Asia and South Asia. It borders Pakistan to the east and south, Iran to the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan to the north, and China through the narrow Wakhan Corridor in the northeast. Kabul is the capital and largest city.
The country's terrain is dominated by mountains, particularly the Hindu Kush, with plains and lower-lying areas in parts of the north and southwest. Afghanistan covers about 652,230 square kilometres.[1] World Bank data placed its population at 43,844,111 in 2025.[2]
Afghanistan has historically connected regions of Central Asia, the Iranian plateau and the Indian subcontinent. Modern Afghan state formation is commonly associated with Ahmad Shah Durrani, who established a major Afghan empire in 1747. During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the country was strongly affected by rivalry between the British and Russian empires. Afghanistan regained control over its foreign relations following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919.[3]
The country subsequently experienced monarchy, republican government, communist rule, Soviet military intervention, civil war, Taliban rule, a Western-supported republic and a second Taliban takeover. The Taliban returned to control of Kabul in August 2021 following the collapse of the Islamic Republic and the withdrawal of United States and allied forces. As of September 2026, the Taliban exercise de facto control over the national government. Russia became the first country to formally recognize the Taliban government in July 2025, while most other governments continue to engage with the authorities without granting formal recognition.[4][5]
Name
The name Afghanistan has historically been associated with the land of the Afghans, a designation that was frequently used in earlier sources for Pashtun communities. Over time, the term came to refer to the broader political territory containing many ethnic and linguistic groups.
The country's name is written as افغانستان in both Dari and Pashto script. The Taliban authorities use the formal title Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. International organizations, including the United Nations, continue to list the state as Afghanistan.[6]
Geography
Afghanistan is completely landlocked. Its geographic position links Central Asia, South Asia, the Iranian plateau and western China.
The Hindu Kush mountain system extends across much of central and northeastern Afghanistan and is one of the country's dominant physical features. The mountain system also extends into neighbouring Pakistan.[7]
Afghanistan has a total area of approximately 652,230 square kilometres. Its geography includes high mountains, plateaus, river valleys, dry steppe and desert areas.[1]
The climate is generally arid to semi-arid. Lowland areas can experience very hot summers, while winters are cold, especially in mountainous regions. Snow accumulating at high elevations provides an important source of water for rivers, irrigation and agriculture.[1]
Important river systems include the Amu Darya, which forms part of the northern frontier, as well as the Kabul, Helmand and Hari rivers. Because rainfall is limited across much of the country, irrigation has historically been important to agricultural settlement.
Band-e Amir, in Bamyan Province, consists of a chain of high-altitude lakes surrounded by distinctive limestone formations.
Administrative divisions
Afghanistan is divided into 34 provinces. Provinces are further divided into districts, although district boundaries and administrative arrangements have changed at different times.
Major urban centres include Kabul, Kandahar, Herat, Mazar-i-Sharif, Jalalabad and Kunduz. Kabul is the country's main political, administrative and population centre.
History
Early history
The territory of modern Afghanistan has been inhabited since ancient times and has long been connected with civilizations in Central Asia, Iran and the Indian subcontinent. Parts of the region belonged at different periods to the Achaemenid Empire and were later conquered by Alexander the Great.
In subsequent centuries, areas of Afghanistan came under the control or influence of Greco-Bactrian, Kushan, Sasanian, Hephthalite and other states. The country's position along major overland routes helped create extensive cultural and commercial exchange.
Buddhism was influential in several regions before Islam became dominant. The Bamiyan Valley developed into an important Buddhist religious and cultural centre. Its surviving archaeological landscape contains Buddhist monasteries, caves and the niches of the two monumental Buddha statues destroyed by the Taliban in March 2001.[8]
Islam spread through the region following Arab and later Muslim conquests. Medieval Afghanistan formed part of several major Islamic states, including the Ghaznavid and Ghurid empires.
The 12th-century Minaret of Jam, associated with the Ghurid period, survives as one of Afghanistan's most important medieval monuments. UNESCO describes the structure as approximately 65 metres high and dates it to the late twelfth century.[9]
Formation of the modern Afghan state
In 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani emerged as ruler after the death of the Persian ruler Nader Shah. He built an empire extending across Afghanistan and into neighbouring regions and is widely associated with the establishment of the modern Afghan state.
His successors faced internal rivalries and the gradual loss of outlying territories. During the nineteenth century, Afghanistan became strategically important in the competition between the British Empire and the Russian Empire, often known as the Great Game.
Britain and Afghanistan fought three Anglo-Afghan wars. Afghan rulers generally retained authority over internal affairs, but Britain gained substantial influence over Afghan foreign relations following the Second Anglo-Afghan War.
Independence and monarchy
Amanullah Khan came to power in 1919 and fought the Third Anglo-Afghan War. The settlement that followed restored Afghan control over foreign policy. The United States recognized Afghanistan in 1921 and later established formal diplomatic relations in 1935.[3]
Amanullah introduced political and social reforms, but opposition contributed to his abdication in 1929. After a further period of instability, Mohammad Nadir Shah became king. He was succeeded in 1933 by Mohammed Zahir Shah, whose reign lasted until 1973.
Afghanistan remained neutral during the Second World War. During the Cold War, it received development assistance from both Western governments and the Soviet Union.
Republic and communist period
In 1973, former prime minister Mohammed Daoud Khan overthrew Zahir Shah while the king was abroad, abolished the monarchy and established a republic.
Daoud was overthrown in April 1978 by the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan. The new Marxist-led government's policies and political repression faced widespread resistance, and armed rebellion spread across the country.[10]
Soviet–Afghan War
The Soviet Union sent large numbers of troops into Afghanistan in December 1979. Soviet forces removed Hafizullah Amin and installed Babrak Karmal as head of a Soviet-aligned government.[10]
The intervention developed into a long war between Soviet-supported Afghan government forces and numerous mujahideen organizations. Resistance groups received assistance from several foreign governments, including the United States, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia.
Soviet forces completed their withdrawal in February 1989. The Soviet-backed Afghan government remained in power until 1992, after which rival mujahideen factions competed for control. Kabul suffered extensive destruction during the subsequent civil war.
First Taliban government
The Taliban emerged in southern Afghanistan during the 1990s. The movement captured Kandahar in 1994 and Kabul in September 1996.
By the late 1990s, the Taliban controlled most of Afghanistan, while the Northern Alliance retained areas mainly in the northeast. The Taliban imposed its interpretation of Islamic law, including extensive restrictions on women and girls. Afghanistan also became a base for al-Qaeda and its leader Osama bin Laden.
2001–2021 republic
Following the September 11 attacks in the United States, the United States and coalition partners began military operations in Afghanistan on 7 October 2001. Kabul fell to anti-Taliban forces the following month.[3]
The UN-backed Bonn political process created an interim political framework. A new constitution was adopted in 2004, and Hamid Karzai became president following elections that year.
International forces remained in Afghanistan while the Taliban gradually rebuilt an insurgency. Fighting intensified over subsequent years despite the development of Afghan national security forces.
Ashraf Ghani became president in 2014. The United States later negotiated directly with the Taliban, leading to the February 2020 Doha agreement setting out conditions connected with the withdrawal of U.S. forces.
Taliban return to power
As international forces withdrew in 2021, Taliban forces captured provincial capitals at increasing speed. Kabul came under Taliban control on 15 August 2021 after President Ashraf Ghani left the country.[5]
The Taliban re-established government institutions under the title Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. Hibatullah Akhundzada remained the movement's overall leader and Mohammad Hassan Akhund served as acting prime minister. A CIA listing updated on 3 September 2026 continued to identify both men in those roles.[11]
Russia formally recognized the Taliban government on 3 July 2025, becoming the first country to do so.[4] As of September 2026, Russia remained the only country reported to have granted formal recognition, although several other states maintained diplomatic missions or other forms of engagement with the authorities.[5]
Government and politics
The political order established under Afghanistan's 2004 constitution ceased to operate as the effective national governing system after the Taliban takeover in August 2021.
The Taliban govern through an emirate structure in which Hibatullah Akhundzada holds the highest leadership position. The administration includes an acting prime minister, deputy prime ministers and ministries responsible for foreign affairs, defence, interior affairs, education, finance, the economy and other areas.[11]
As of September 2026, Mohammad Hassan Akhund was listed as acting prime minister. Abdul Ghani Baradar and Abdul Salam Hanafi were among the acting deputy prime ministers.[11]
International recognition remains limited. Russia formally recognized the Taliban administration in July 2025. The United States does not recognize the caretaker Taliban government, according to the CIA's September 2026 leadership listing.[11][4]
Afghanistan remains a member state of the United Nations. It was admitted to the organization on 19 November 1946.[6]
Law and human rights
Since returning to power, the Taliban authorities have issued laws and directives based on their interpretation of Islamic law. International organizations have documented extensive restrictions affecting women and girls, including restrictions on secondary and higher education, employment, movement and participation in public life.
Afghanistan is the only country where girls and women are formally prohibited from secondary and higher education. UNESCO estimated in August 2026 that approximately 2.4 million Afghan girls had been excluded from secondary education since the Taliban returned to power.[12]
United Nations officials have also expressed concern about corporal punishment, executions, restrictions on freedom of expression and the legal and social position of women. A February 2026 Reuters report cited the UN human rights chief's concern that a new Taliban decree could expand capital and corporal punishment and deepen restrictions on women and girls.[13]
The Taliban authorities state that their policies concerning women and other social matters are based on their interpretation of Islamic law and Afghan values. These policies remain a major source of disagreement between the administration, international organizations and many foreign governments.[5]
Foreign relations
Afghanistan has been a member of the United Nations since 1946.[6] It also has longstanding diplomatic and economic relationships with neighbouring countries and other states across Asia, the Middle East and beyond.
Following the Taliban takeover in 2021, neighbouring governments and regional powers continued diplomatic, economic and security contacts with Kabul despite widespread reluctance to recognize the government formally.
Russia became the first country to grant formal recognition in July 2025.[4] China, the United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Pakistan and other countries have maintained varying forms of diplomatic engagement with Kabul without the same formal recognition status reported for Russia.[5]
Relations with Pakistan have become increasingly tense over cross-border militancy and accusations concerning armed groups operating from Afghan territory. The Taliban authorities deny Pakistani accusations that they support or shelter militants responsible for attacks inside Pakistan.
Cross-border fighting and Pakistani airstrikes inside Afghanistan occurred during 2026. On 21 September 2026, Pakistan said it had carried out strikes against militant targets in Afghanistan, while Afghan authorities and the United Nations reported civilian deaths from the attacks.[14]
Afghanistan also maintains important economic and political relationships with Iran, China, Russia and the Central Asian republics.
Economy
Afghanistan has a low-income economy in which agriculture, trade, services, construction and natural resources play important roles. Decades of conflict, weak infrastructure, restricted access to international finance and dependence on foreign assistance have constrained development.
World Bank data placed Afghanistan's gross domestic product at approximately US$17.78 billion in 2024.[15]
Economic activity contracted sharply following the political transition in 2021 before later returning to growth. In May 2026, the World Bank estimated real GDP growth of 4.8 percent for 2025. It also reported that rapid population growth associated partly with the return of millions of Afghans caused GDP per capita to fall by about 5.6 percent.[16]
The World Bank identified poverty, food insecurity, weak investment, limited access to finance, unreliable electricity, declining foreign grants and a large trade deficit among continuing economic challenges.[16]
Agriculture remains important for employment and food supply. Major products include wheat, fruit, nuts and livestock. Mining and quarrying also contribute to economic activity. Afghanistan has deposits of copper, iron, coal, precious stones and other minerals.
The national currency is the Afghan afghani. Da Afghanistan Bank states that, under Article 33 of its banking law, the currency and monetary unit of Afghanistan is the afghani.[17]
Demographics
Reliable demographic measurement in Afghanistan is complicated by decades of conflict, displacement, incomplete census coverage and large-scale migration.
World Bank data estimated the population at 43,844,111 in 2025.[2]
Afghanistan is ethnically diverse. Major communities include Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras and Uzbeks, alongside Turkmen, Aimaq, Baloch, Nuristani, Pashai and other groups. Historical ethnolinguistic maps held by the Library of Congress illustrate the country's complex regional distribution of languages and ethnic communities.[18]
Large Afghan communities also live abroad, particularly in neighbouring Pakistan and Iran. Migration and displacement have repeatedly increased during periods of war and political upheaval.
Millions of Afghans returned or were deported from neighbouring countries during the mid-2020s. The World Bank estimated that around 3.7 million Afghans returned to the country during the period associated with its 2025 economic assessment, increasing pressure on employment, housing and public services.[16]
Languages
Afghanistan is a multilingual country. Dari and Pashto have long been the principal official languages of the Afghan state.
Article 16 of the 2004 constitution identified Pashto and Dari as official state languages. It also provided for official regional use of Uzbek, Turkmen, Pashai, Nuristani, Balochi and Pamiri languages in areas where speakers formed a majority.[19]
Dari, an Afghan variety of Persian, is widely used as a language of communication between communities and has historically been important in administration, education, literature and urban life.
Pashto is widely spoken in southern and eastern Afghanistan as well as by communities throughout other parts of the country. Numerous Iranian, Turkic and Nuristani languages are also spoken.
Religion
Islam is the dominant religion in Afghanistan and has had a major role in the country's political, social and cultural history.
Most Afghan Muslims are Sunni. Shia Muslim communities include a substantial proportion of the Hazara population as well as other groups.
Afghanistan has historically also contained smaller Sikh, Hindu, Jewish and other religious communities. Many members of these communities emigrated during decades of conflict and instability.
Education
Afghanistan's education system expanded substantially after 2001, when millions of children entered primary and secondary schools and higher-education institutions. Progress remained uneven because of poverty, insecurity, shortages of trained teachers and large differences between urban and rural areas.
Following the Taliban takeover in 2021, access to education became sharply divided by gender. Girls were eventually prohibited from secondary education, while women were barred from universities.
UNESCO reported in August 2026 that an estimated 2.4 million Afghan girls had been excluded from secondary education. It also said Afghanistan remained the only country in the world where girls and women were formally prohibited from secondary and higher education.[12]
UNESCO has warned that restrictions on women's education also affect the wider education system by reducing the future supply of qualified female teachers and increasing pressure on already limited educational resources.[12]
Taliban officials have maintained that education policies must comply with their interpretation of Islamic and cultural requirements.
Health
Afghanistan's health system has been shaped by decades of war, poverty, population displacement and dependence on international support.
Major public-health challenges include maternal and child health, malnutrition, infectious diseases, shortages of trained medical workers and limited access to specialist care outside major cities.
Humanitarian organizations and international agencies continue to support hospitals, clinics, vaccination programmes and nutrition services. Declining foreign assistance and restrictions affecting women's employment have created additional challenges for the delivery of some services.
Culture
Afghan culture reflects Persianate, Central Asian, South Asian and local traditions developed across a highly diverse population.
Regional differences can be seen in language, clothing, architecture, food, music, poetry and social customs.
Poetry has a particularly important place in Afghan cultural life. Persian-language literary traditions are deeply established, while Pashto has its own major written and oral poetic traditions. Folk poetry and oral storytelling remain important in many communities.
Traditional crafts include carpet weaving, embroidery, ceramics, metalwork, woodwork and jewellery. Afghan carpets and rugs are produced in several regional styles and remain culturally and economically important.
Afghan cuisine varies by region but commonly uses rice, wheat, meat, vegetables, dairy products, dried fruits and nuts. Kabuli palaw, commonly prepared with rice, meat, carrots and raisins, is one of the dishes most closely associated with Afghan cuisine.
Heritage
Afghanistan contains archaeological and architectural sites representing Buddhist, Islamic and other periods of its history.
UNESCO lists two Afghan properties on the World Heritage List: the Minaret and Archaeological Remains of Jam, inscribed in 2002, and the Cultural Landscape and Archaeological Remains of the Bamiyan Valley, inscribed in 2003.[20]
The Minaret of Jam is a 12th-century brick structure approximately 65 metres high. Its surface is decorated with geometric brickwork and inscriptions, and UNESCO identifies it as an important surviving example of Ghurid architecture.[9]
In 2026, the UNESCO World Heritage Committee decided to retain the Minaret of Jam on the List of World Heritage in Danger while requesting continued conservation and monitoring work.[21]
The Bamiyan Valley preserves Buddhist monasteries, caves, artistic remains and the niches where two monumental Buddha statues stood until their destruction by the Taliban in March 2001.[8]
The World Heritage Committee also retained the Bamiyan Valley on the List of World Heritage in Danger in 2026.[22]
Other historically important urban and archaeological centres include Herat, Balkh, Ghazni and Kabul.
Infrastructure and transport
Afghanistan's mountainous geography creates major challenges for domestic transportation. Roads are the principal means of movement for people and goods.
A national highway network links Kabul with cities including Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif. Mountain passes are strategically important, particularly the Salang Pass, which provides a major connection between Kabul and northern Afghanistan.
International airports serve Kabul, Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif. Afghanistan historically had only a small railway network, although cross-border railway links with neighbouring Central Asian countries have gradually expanded.
Media and communications
Afghanistan developed a large television, radio and online media sector during the two decades after 2001.
Following the Taliban return to power, journalists and media organizations began operating under tighter restrictions concerning content, employment and public presentation. Restrictions on women have also affected female journalists and broadcasters.[5]
Mobile telecommunications expanded rapidly during the first two decades of the twenty-first century and became one of the country's principal forms of communication. Internet access has also expanded, particularly in urban areas, although availability, affordability and service quality vary substantially.
Environment
Afghanistan faces environmental challenges including drought, desertification, soil erosion, deforestation, water scarcity and damage from extreme weather.
Because much of the country's water supply depends on snow accumulation and seasonal melting in the mountains, changes in precipitation and temperature can have important effects on agriculture and water availability.
Floods and droughts periodically cause serious damage to agricultural production and rural settlements.
Afghanistan also lies in an active seismic region and experiences frequent earthquakes. Mountainous northeastern and western areas have suffered particularly destructive earthquakes.
Sport
Traditional sports include buzkashi, an equestrian competition in which riders compete for control of an animal carcass or equivalent competition object. The sport has especially strong cultural associations with northern and central Afghanistan.
Cricket developed rapidly in Afghanistan during the twenty-first century and became one of the country's most internationally successful modern sports. The Afghanistan national cricket team has participated in major international tournaments.
Football is also widely played. Other popular activities include wrestling, martial arts and regional traditional sports.
See also
- Kabul
- History of Afghanistan
- Hindu Kush
- Central Asia
- South Asia
- Taliban
- Afghan afghani
- Bamiyan Valley
- Minaret of Jam
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Afghanistan country summary. CIA World Factbook Archive. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 World Development Indicators: Population, Afghanistan. World Bank DataBank. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Afghanistan: A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations. Office of the Historian. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Russia becomes first country to recognise Taliban government of Afghanistan. Reuters. 3 July 2025. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Taliban mark five years in power as aid groups warn of crisis. Reuters. 15 August 2026. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Member States. United Nations. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
- ↑ Hindu Kush. Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Cultural Landscape and Archaeological Remains of the Bamiyan Valley. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Minaret and Archaeological Remains of Jam. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and the U.S. Response, 1978–1980. Office of the Historian. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Afghanistan — Leaders and Cabinet Members. CIA World Leaders. 3 September 2026. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Five years on: UNESCO calls for the full restoration of the right to education for Afghan girls and women. UNESCO. 11 August 2026. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
- ↑ UN rights chief says Taliban decree expands executions, deepens repression. Reuters. 26 February 2026. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
- ↑ Pakistan says it killed 28 militants, Afghan Taliban and UN report three civilian deaths. Reuters. 21 September 2026. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
- ↑ Afghanistan — Data. World Bank Open Data. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Afghanistan's Economy Shows Resilience but living standards are falling. World Bank. 26 May 2026. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
- ↑ Da Afghanistan Bank Notification. Da Afghanistan Bank. 15 September 2021. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
- ↑ Afghanistan ethnic groups. Library of Congress. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
- ↑ Enforced Constitution of Afghanistan. Ministry of Justice of Afghanistan. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
- ↑ Afghanistan. UNESCO World Heritage Convention. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
- ↑ Decision 48 COM 7A.24 — Minaret and Archaeological Remains of Jam. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
- ↑ Decision 48 COM 7A.23 — Cultural Landscape and Archaeological Remains of the Bamiyan Valley. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 24 September 2026.