Afghanistan

Afghanistan

Country

Official name

Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (name used by the de facto Taliban authorities)

Native name

افغانستان

Capital

Kabul

Largest city

Kabul

Official languages

Dari and Pashto

Demonym

Afghan

Currency

Afghan afghani(AFN)

Calling code

+93

Internet TLD

.af

Afghanistan is a landlocked country at the meeting point of Central Asia and South Asia. It borders Pakistan to the east and south, Iran to the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan to the north, and China through the narrow Wakhan region in the northeast. Kabul is the capital and largest city.

The country's terrain is dominated by mountains, particularly the Hindu Kush, with plains and lower-lying areas in parts of the north and southwest. Afghanistan covers about 652,230 square kilometres. World Bank data placed its population at about 43.8 million in 2025.

Afghanistan has been an important crossroads for trade, migration and conquest for centuries. Modern Afghan state formation is commonly associated with Ahmad Shah Durrani, who established the Durrani state in 1747. During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Afghanistan was influenced by rivalry between the British and Russian empires. It secured control over its foreign affairs following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919.

The country experienced a monarchy, a republic, communist rule, Soviet military intervention, civil war, Taliban rule, a Western-backed republican government and a second Taliban takeover. The Taliban returned to control of Kabul in August 2021 following the collapse of the Islamic Republic and the withdrawal of United States and allied forces. As of September 2026, the Taliban exercise de facto control over the national government. Russia became the first country to formally recognize the Taliban government in July 2025, while most governments and international institutions have continued to deal with it without granting formal recognition.

Name

The name Afghanistan has historically been associated with the land of the Afghans, a term that was often used in earlier sources for Pashtun communities. Over time, the name came to refer to the wider state containing many ethnic and linguistic groups.

The country's name is written as افغانستان in both Dari and Pashto script. The Taliban authorities use the formal title Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, while the country continues to be widely referred to internationally simply as Afghanistan.

Geography

Afghanistan is completely landlocked. The nearest seacoast lies hundreds of kilometres to the south, beyond Pakistan. Its position between the Iranian plateau, Central Asia, the Indian subcontinent and western China has historically made it an important route for armies, merchants and migrating peoples.

The Hindu Kush mountain system extends across much of the central and northeastern parts of Afghanistan and forms one of the country's most important physical features. Mountain valleys support settlements and agriculture, while lower plains are found in the north and southwest.

Afghanistan's climate is generally arid or semi-arid, with hot summers in many lowland areas and cold winters, especially at high elevations. Snowfall in the mountains provides an important source of water for rivers and agriculture.

Important river systems include the Amu Darya along part of the northern frontier, the Kabul River, the Helmand River and the Hari River. Because much of the country receives limited rainfall, irrigation has long been important to farming.

The country's landscapes range from desert and dry steppe to fertile valleys, high mountains and alpine lakes. Band-e Amir, in Bamyan Province, is known for a chain of high-altitude lakes surrounded by limestone formations.

Administrative divisions

Afghanistan is divided into 34 provinces. Provinces are further divided into districts, although the number and boundaries of districts have changed at different times.

Among the country's major urban centres are:

• Kabul, the national capital and largest city
• Kandahar, an important southern commercial and historical centre
• Herat, a major city in western Afghanistan
• Mazar-i-Sharif, a major northern city
• Jalalabad, an important eastern city
• Kunduz, a major settlement in the northeast

Kabul has long served as the political and administrative centre of the modern Afghan state.

History

Early history

The territory of modern Afghanistan has been inhabited since ancient times and has been linked to civilizations in Central Asia, Iran and the Indian subcontinent. Parts of the region were incorporated into the Achaemenid Persian Empire and were later conquered by Alexander the Great.

In subsequent centuries, areas of Afghanistan were ruled or influenced by numerous political and cultural powers, including Greco-Bactrian, Kushan, Sasanian and Hephthalite states. Its location along major overland routes encouraged cultural and commercial exchange.

Buddhism was influential in several regions before the spread of Islam. The Bamyan Valley became especially well known for its Buddhist monasteries and monumental statues. Islam became increasingly established following Arab and later Muslim conquests.

Medieval Afghanistan formed part of several major Islamic states, including the Ghaznavid and Ghurid empires. The 12th-century Minaret of Jam, associated with the Ghurid period, survives as one of the country's most significant medieval monuments.

Formation of the modern Afghan state

In 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani emerged as ruler following the death of the Persian ruler Nader Shah. Ahmad Shah built a large empire extending across Afghanistan and parts of neighbouring regions and is widely associated with the foundation of the modern Afghan state.

His successors struggled with internal rivalries and the loss of outlying territories. During the nineteenth century, Afghanistan became strategically important in the political competition between the British Empire and the Russian Empire, often described as the Great Game.

Britain fought three major Anglo-Afghan wars. Afghan rulers retained internal authority for much of this period, although Britain exercised strong influence over Afghan foreign relations following the Second Anglo-Afghan War.

Independence and monarchy

King Amanullah Khan came to power in 1919 and fought the Third Anglo-Afghan War. The conflict was followed by arrangements through which Afghanistan regained control over its foreign policy. The United States formally recognized Afghanistan in 1921.

Amanullah introduced political and social reforms, but resistance to his government contributed to his abdication in 1929. After another period of instability, Mohammad Nadir Shah took power. He was succeeded in 1933 by Mohammed Zahir Shah, whose reign lasted four decades.

Afghanistan remained neutral during the Second World War and later received development assistance from both Western countries and the Soviet Union during the Cold War.

Republic and communist period

In 1973, former prime minister Mohammed Daoud Khan overthrew Zahir Shah while the king was abroad and abolished the monarchy, establishing a republic.

Daoud was overthrown in April 1978 by the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan, a Marxist political organization. The new government's reforms and political repression faced widespread resistance, and an armed insurgency expanded across the country.

Soviet–Afghan War

The Soviet Union deployed large numbers of troops into Afghanistan in December 1979, removed Hafizullah Amin and installed Babrak Karmal as head of the Soviet-aligned government.

The intervention developed into a long war between Soviet-supported Afghan government forces and numerous mujahideen groups. The resistance received support from several foreign states, including the United States, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia.

Soviet forces completed their withdrawal in 1989. The Soviet-backed government remained in power for several more years but collapsed in 1992. Rival mujahideen factions then fought for control, and Kabul suffered extensive destruction during the civil war.

First Taliban government

The Taliban emerged in southern Afghanistan during the 1990s and captured Kandahar in 1994. The movement expanded rapidly and took Kabul in September 1996.

By the late 1990s, the Taliban controlled most of Afghanistan, while the Northern Alliance retained territory mainly in the northeast. The Taliban imposed a strict interpretation of Islamic law and placed severe restrictions on women and girls. Afghanistan also became a base for al-Qaeda and its leader Osama bin Laden.

2001–2021 republic

Following the September 11 attacks in the United States, the United States demanded that the Taliban hand over Osama bin Laden and dismantle al-Qaeda's presence. U.S. and allied military operations began in October 2001, supported by Afghan anti-Taliban forces. Kabul fell to the Northern Alliance in November.

The UN-supported Bonn process created a transitional political framework. A new constitution was adopted in 2004, and Hamid Karzai became president after elections that year. Parliamentary elections followed in 2005.

International forces remained in Afghanistan while the Taliban rebuilt an insurgency. The conflict intensified over subsequent years despite the expansion of Afghan national security institutions.

Ashraf Ghani became president in 2014 following a disputed election and a political agreement with Abdullah Abdullah. The United States later negotiated directly with the Taliban, culminating in the 2020 Doha agreement, which set conditions for the withdrawal of U.S. forces.

Taliban return to power

As foreign forces withdrew in 2021, Taliban forces captured provincial capitals at increasing speed. Kabul came under Taliban control on 15 August 2021 after President Ashraf Ghani left the country.

The Taliban re-established institutions under the title Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan and formed an acting administration. Hibatullah Akhundzada remained the movement's overall leader, while Mohammad Hassan Akhund became acting prime minister. The CIA's September 2026 listing continued to identify both men in those roles.

Russia formally recognized the Taliban government in July 2025, becoming the first country to do so. As of 2026, other states maintained varying levels of diplomatic engagement with Kabul while generally withholding formal recognition.

Government and politics

The political system established under the 2004 constitution ceased to function as the effective national system after the Taliban takeover in August 2021. The Taliban authorities govern through an emirate structure in which Hibatullah Akhundzada holds the movement's highest leadership position.

The acting government includes a prime minister, deputy prime ministers and ministries responsible for areas including foreign affairs, defence, interior affairs, education and the economy. Mohammad Hassan Akhund remained listed as acting prime minister in September 2026.

Formal international recognition of the administration remains limited. Russia recognized the Taliban government in 2025, while the United States and most other governments have not formally recognized it.

Law and human rights

Since returning to power, Taliban authorities have introduced rules based on their interpretation of Islamic law. International human-rights bodies have documented extensive restrictions affecting women and girls, including limits on secondary and higher education, employment, movement and participation in public life.

By 2026, girls remained barred from education beyond primary school under Taliban policy. United Nations officials have also raised concerns about corporal punishment, executions, restrictions on expression and the legal position of women.

The Taliban authorities argue that their policies are based on Islamic principles and Afghan social values. Their treatment of women and girls nevertheless remains one of the central areas of disagreement between the administration and much of the international community.

Foreign relations

Afghanistan is a member of the United Nations and maintains historical diplomatic relationships with countries throughout Asia, the Middle East, Europe and other regions.

Since 2021, neighbouring and regional governments have continued diplomatic, economic and security contacts with the Taliban authorities despite broad reluctance to formally recognize the government. Russia granted formal recognition in July 2025.

Relations with Pakistan have become increasingly strained over cross-border militancy and accusations concerning armed groups operating near or across the frontier. Fighting and airstrikes occurred along the Afghanistan–Pakistan border during 2026.

Afghanistan also maintains important economic and political links with Iran, China, Russia and the Central Asian republics.

Economy

Afghanistan has a low-income economy in which agriculture, trade, services, construction and natural resources play important roles. Decades of conflict, limited infrastructure, weak access to finance and dependence on international assistance have constrained long-term development.

The World Bank estimated Afghanistan's GDP at about US$17.8 billion in 2024. Economic output returned to growth after a major contraction following the political transition of 2021. The World Bank estimated real GDP growth of 4.8 percent in 2025, but reported that rapid population growth and the arrival of millions of returnees caused GDP per person to decline.

Agriculture remains important for employment and food production. Major products include wheat, fruit, nuts and livestock. Mining and quarrying also contribute to economic activity, and Afghanistan has deposits of copper, iron, coal, precious stones and other minerals.

The World Bank reported continuing difficulties including poverty, food insecurity, unemployment, reduced foreign assistance, a large trade deficit, limited access to formal finance and unreliable electricity.

The national currency is the afghani. Afghanistan's central-bank law identifies the afghani as the country's monetary unit, and Da Afghanistan Bank has the exclusive authority to issue national banknotes and coins.

Demographics

Reliable demographic measurement is difficult because Afghanistan has experienced decades of conflict, displacement and large-scale migration. World Bank figures estimated the population at 43,844,111 in 2025.

Afghanistan is ethnically diverse. Major communities include Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras and Uzbeks, alongside Turkmen, Aimaq, Baloch, Nuristani, Pashai and other groups. Historical and modern maps produced by institutions such as the Library of Congress demonstrate the country's complex ethnolinguistic geography.

Large Afghan communities also live outside the country, particularly in neighbouring Pakistan and Iran. Migration has repeatedly increased during periods of war or political upheaval. Millions of Afghans returned or were deported from neighbouring states during the mid-2020s, placing additional pressure on jobs, housing and public services.

Languages

Dari and Pashto have long been the two principal official languages of the Afghan state. Article 16 of the 2004 constitution identified both as official languages and provided for additional official use of Uzbek, Turkmen, Pashai, Nuristani, Balochi and Pamiri languages in areas where they were spoken by a majority.

Dari, an Afghan variety of Persian, is widely used as a common language between communities and has historically been important in administration, literature and urban life. Pashto is spoken particularly widely in the south and east, as well as by communities in other parts of the country.

Numerous other Iranian, Turkic and Nuristani languages are spoken, reflecting Afghanistan's ethnolinguistic diversity.

Religion

Islam is the dominant religion in Afghanistan and has played a major role in the country's social, cultural and political history. Most Afghan Muslims are Sunni, while a substantial part of the Hazara population and some other communities follow Shia Islam.

Afghanistan has also been home historically to smaller Sikh, Hindu, Jewish and other religious communities, although many members of these groups emigrated during decades of instability and conflict.

Culture

Afghan culture reflects influences from Persianate, Central Asian, South Asian and local traditions. Regional differences are visible in language, clothing, food, music, architecture and social customs.

Poetry has a particularly important place in Afghan cultural life. Persian-language literary traditions are deeply established in western and northern Afghanistan, while Pashto has its own major poetic tradition. Oral storytelling and regional folk traditions also remain significant.

Traditional crafts include carpet weaving, embroidery, ceramics, metalwork, woodwork and jewellery. Afghan carpets are produced in several regional styles and remain an important craft and trade product.

Cuisine varies by region but commonly uses rice, wheat, meat, vegetables, dairy products, dried fruit and nuts. Kabuli palaw, a rice dish commonly prepared with meat, carrots and raisins, is widely associated with Afghan cuisine.

Heritage

Afghanistan contains archaeological and architectural sites representing Buddhist, Islamic and other periods of its history.

UNESCO lists two Afghan properties on the World Heritage List: the Minaret and Archaeological Remains of Jam, inscribed in 2002, and the Cultural Landscape and Archaeological Remains of the Bamiyan Valley, inscribed in 2003.

The Minaret of Jam is a 12th-century brick tower approximately 65 metres high, decorated with intricate brickwork and inscriptions. It is associated with the Ghurid civilization. UNESCO continued to list the site as World Heritage in Danger in 2026 because of conservation and environmental threats.

The Bamiyan Valley preserves archaeological remains of Buddhist monastic communities and the niches where two monumental Buddha statues stood before their destruction by the Taliban in 2001.

Historic urban centres such as Herat, Balkh, Ghazni and Kabul contain monuments associated with different periods of Afghan history.

Education

Afghanistan's education system expanded considerably after 2001, with millions of children entering schools and higher-education institutions. Progress remained uneven because of insecurity, poverty, shortages of teachers and major differences between urban and rural areas.

Following the Taliban takeover in 2021, access to education became sharply divided by gender. Girls were prevented from continuing normal schooling beyond the primary level, while women were later barred from universities.

The restrictions have drawn repeated criticism from United Nations agencies, governments and humanitarian organizations. Taliban officials have maintained that education policy must comply with their interpretation of Islamic and cultural requirements.

Health

Afghanistan's health system has been shaped by decades of conflict, poverty and international assistance. Major challenges include maternal and child health, malnutrition, infectious diseases, limited specialist care and shortages of health workers in rural areas.

Humanitarian organizations and international agencies continue to support hospitals, clinics, vaccination programmes and nutrition services. Reduced international funding and restrictions affecting female workers have created additional pressures on service delivery.

Infrastructure and transport

Afghanistan's mountainous terrain makes transport difficult. Roads remain the principal means of domestic travel and trade.

A major highway network links Kabul with cities including Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif. Mountain passes such as the Salang Pass are strategically important because they connect northern Afghanistan with Kabul and the rest of the country.

The country has several international airports, including airports serving Kabul, Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif. Afghanistan has historically had only a limited railway network, although cross-border rail connections with neighbouring Central Asian countries have expanded.

Media and communications

Afghanistan developed a diverse television, radio and online media sector during the period after 2001. Following the Taliban return to power, journalists and media organizations have operated under increased restrictions concerning content, employment and public presentation.

Mobile telecommunications expanded rapidly during the first two decades of the twenty-first century and became a major method of communication. Internet access has also increased, particularly in urban centres, although availability and quality vary significantly.

Environment

Afghanistan faces environmental pressures including drought, desertification, soil erosion, deforestation, water scarcity and damage caused by extreme weather.

Its reliance on seasonal snowfall makes water availability sensitive to changing precipitation patterns and temperature. Floods and droughts periodically affect agricultural production and rural communities.

Afghanistan also lies in a geologically active region and experiences damaging earthquakes. Mountainous northeastern and western regions have experienced particularly destructive earthquakes in recent decades.

Sport

Traditional sports include buzkashi, in which mounted riders compete for control of an animal carcass or equivalent competition object. The sport has strong cultural associations with northern and central Afghanistan.

Cricket became one of Afghanistan's most internationally successful modern sports during the twenty-first century. The Afghanistan national cricket team has competed in major international tournaments.

Football is also widely played, along with wrestling, martial arts and other sports.

See also

• Kabul
• History of Afghanistan
• Hindu Kush
• Central Asia
• South Asia
• Taliban
• Afghan afghani
• Bamiyan Valley

External links

• United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan
• World Bank – Afghanistan
• UNESCO World Heritage – Afghanistan
• Da Afghanistan Bank